Augenbohnen, unreife Samen, gekocht, bio?

Green pods
As soon as the baby pods appear they can be eaten. These young immature pods can be stir fried whole or chopped and eaten as “snaps” like a green bean. The younger pods are more tender. Once they elongate, the peas will start to form and they will get more fibrous and less desirable to eat. If you try to shell the peas during the green stage, it will be very difficult to separate the peas from the fleshy pod.

Yellow pods
The yellow pod stage is ideal for shelling and cooking black eyed peas. At this point, the peas are mature and plump with high water content. Shelling is very easy at the yellow pod stage. They cook quickly (10 minutes) in a boiling pot or stir fry with a lid to help cook them.

Brown pods
Once the pods and beans start to dry, they turn brown. Let them dry completely if you would like to save the seeds to replant, or store them to cook later as a dry bean. To prepare the dry beans to eat, soak them in water to rehydrate, drain and rinse, then boil in a pot for 30 minutes or longer until they are tender. Stir the beans throughout the cooking process a few times and salt to taste.

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When to Pick Black-Eyed Peas

Originating in subtropical Asia, black-eyed peas are actually legumes rather than peas. They are a common celebratory feature of many New Year’s Day meals in the southern United States. Although a popular crop in that region, black-eyed peas are actually cultivated around the globe, yet many of us only know them as the dried white bean with a black 'eye.' Black-eyed peas can actually be harvested as either a fresh snap bean about 60 days post germination or as a dry bean after about 90 days of growing time. They are sown after the last frost or can be started inside four to six weeks before the last frost, although they don’t respond as well to transplanting as direct sowing. A better idea to get an early start is to lay down black plastic to warm the soil and then direct seed.

How to Harvest Black-Eyed Peas

Both bush and pole varieties are available, but either type will be ready to harvest in about 60 to 70 days for snap beans. If you are harvesting black eyed peas for dried beans, wait until they have been growing for 80 to 100 days. There are a number of methods to harvest black-eyed peas for dried beans. The easiest is to wait to start picking the black-eyed peas until they are dry on the vine. Bush beans begin producing before pole beans and usually become ready to harvest all at once. Stagger planting every two weeks will keep the bush beans producing longer. You can begin picking black-eyed peas for snap beans when the pods are 3 to 4 inches (8-10 cm.) in length. Pick them gently so you don’t take the entire vine with the pods. If you want to harvest for shelling beans or dry beans, leave the pods on the vines to dry completely. Wait to harvest until the pods are dry, brown, and you can see the beans almost bursting through the pods. Shell the pods and allow the peas to dry thoroughly. Store them in an airtight container in a cool, dry area for at least a year. Add the empty hulls to your compost pile.

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Die meisten Bohnen werden bereits 2 bis 3 Monate nach der Ernte reif und können für den Verzehr der ganzen Hülse geerntet werden. Für Bohnen, die beispielsweise im Mai gesät wurden, ist die Haupterntezeit im Juli und August. Legen Sie die Bohnenkerne erst im Juni in die Erde, verschiebt sich die Erntezeit in den Frühherbst. Wer Trockenbohnen ernten möchte, sollte warten, bis die grünen Hülsen ausgetrocknet und spröde sind. Dies ist bei sonnig warmer Herbstwitterung Ende September oder Anfang Oktober der Fall. 

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Most gardeners plant cowpea seeds directly outdoors, once the danger of frost has passed. Water seeds well to speed up germination.

Plant the cowpea seeds 2-3 inches apart, ½ inch deep directly into warm soil.

Different varieties of cowpeas have different growing habits. Some cowpeas climb like pole beans while others form compact plants like bush beans.

When and How to Harvest for Food Consumption

For culinary use, cowpeas can be harvested early, like green beans, or later in the season when the pods are dry and brittle, and the seeds inside are hard.

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The nutritional profile of cowpea grain is similar to that of other pulses with a relatively low fat content and total protein content that is two- to fourfold higher than cereal and tuber crops.With recognised nutritional value, cowpea can be consumed such as mature beans (i.e. dried grain), green beans or green pods. The cowpea leaves also can be consumed as food. 

Resistant starch is associated with reduced glycemic response, which can be beneficial to insulin-resistant individuals and those with diabetes. Carbohydrates that are digested slowly also result in a low glycemic index (GI). The consumption of low GI foods could prevent the emergence of several diseases, such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and even certain cancers. Other important constituents in cowpea seeds are the α-galactosides, with a recognized prebiotic function.

The health organizations around the world recommend consuming legumes as part of a healthy diet, particularly because they have an important role in the control and prevention of chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and cancer. The legumes also favour the control of body weight, since they give greater satiety, prevent the accumulation of fat at the abdominal level and regulate blood sugar levels.

Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients that selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of beneficial bacteria in the colon. The prebiotics resist hydrolysis by digestive enzymes and/or are not absorbed in the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract and pass into the large bowel and promote the growth of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, contributing for the right balance of intestinal bacterial flora and the immune system. The growth of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus to dominate pathogenic organisms and thus invigorate human health is facilitated by certain oligosaccharides. Cowpea seeds are rich in α-galactosides (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose), also known as the raffinose family oligosaccharides.

The α-galactosides are beneficial compounds when ingested in amounts up to 3 g day⁻¹. However, when consumed in high doses the α-galactosides can cause flatulence and interference with the absorption of other nutrients during the digestive process. As RFO act as substrate for intestinal bacteria, they are also considered as prebiotics. The Galactosyl-cyclitols, present in legume seeds, are considered as important phytochemicals related to disease prevention.

Cowpea is a good source of dietary phenolics mainly phenolic acids, flavonoids and anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins. These compounds are reportedly responsible for the antioxidant and other health promoting properties of cowpea. Phenolic compounds (tannins, flavonoids and phenolic acids) are secondary metabolites in plants and are present in some plant foods. Phenolic compounds are responsible for various beneficial effects in a multitude of diseases. Phenolic compounds have antioxidant properties and ability to modulate the activity of various enzymes. These phenolics are also potent inhibitors of a-amylase and a-glucosidase, the two important enzymes involved in the regulation of glucose homeostasis.

Carotenoids, precursors of vitamin A, are also present in cowpea contributing to the antioxidant compounds provided by this legume. Among the carotenoids present in cowpea seeds, lutein makes up over 70.0%.Other carotenoids present in cowpea are

Conventional processing methods, such as soaking, boiling, germination and fermentation, are widely used to decrease the content of these undesirable components, which results in enhanced acceptability and nutritional quality in addition to optimal utilisation of this legume as human food.

Narrativer Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.79006

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Cowpea is also traditionally cultivated in some Mediterranean countries,3 although it is not widespread in Europe.

cowpea grain is more or less the same as other pulses, with a relatively low-fat content and high total protein concentration. Cowpea is considered as a nutrient dense food with low energy density.

The total protein content of cowpea is approximately two- to four-fold greater than cereal and tuber crops.20,21 Moreover, compared to cereal grains, cowpea protein is a rich source of the amino acid lysine and is used as a natural complimentary food with cereals.5 However, it is deficient in methionine and cysteine compared to animal proteins.22 Cowpea is considered as an incredible source of many other health-promoting components, such as soluble and insoluble dietary fiber, phenolic compounds, minerals, and many other functional compounds, including B group vitamins.23,24 Thus, cowpea contributes greatly toward improving the quality of human health by offering a number of health benefits.

All of these beneficial effects exerted by cowpea are attributed to the presence of phytochemicals, resistant starch, dietary fiber and a low-fat content, along with beneficial unsaturated fatty acids. The low glycemic index of cowpea is attributed to the action of resistant starch and dietary fiber, which attenuate insulin responses and reduce hunger.

Narratives Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.9074

Study: weak evidence

Cowpea seeds contain relatively higher amount of lysine compared to most cereal grains.

Cowpea is also a good source of minerals and vitamins (Cruz and Aragão 2014), most importantly, vitamin C (Tresina and Mohan 2011; Etokakpan et al. 1983) and carotenoids (Hashim and Pongjata 2000).

Even though cowpea is a very good source of protein and other nutrients, the presence of antinutritional factors brings about nutritional implications. Major antinutritional factors include tannin, protease inhibitors (trypsin inhibitors and chymotrypsin inhibitors), lectins, phytic acid, oxalic acid and flatulence-causing oligosaccharides. Intake of these substances over a long period of time is supposed to cause some adverse health effects because these compounds can interact with macro- and micronutrients, impairing their absorption during digestion, thus reducing the bioavailability of nutrients. However, in recent years, it has been suggested that they also have some beneficial health effects to human . For instance, tannin and phytic acid possess anticancer properties. Phytic acid is believed to prevent colon cancer by reducing oxidative stress in the lumen of the intestinal tract by the iron chelating effect.

Phytic acid (myo-inositol-(1,2,3,4,5,6)hexakisphosphate) is the major phosphorus storage compound in plants (Madsen and Brinch-Pedersen 2016). It has the ability to bind essential dietary minerals (zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium, copper and manganese), proteins and starch, thereby reducing their bioavailability.

Cowpea seeds contain enzyme inhibitors such as protease inhibitors, trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors and amylase inhibitors. Trypsin inhibitors impair digestion and absorption of dietary protein by strongly inhibiting trypsin activity.

The presence of the α-galactosides such as raffinose, stachyose and verbascose is also reported to have adverse effects on nutritional value of the cowpea (Khattab and Arntfield 2009). α-Galactosides withstand the digestion in the human gastrointestinal tract due to lack of secretion of α-galactosidases. In the caecum, undigested α-galactosides undergo fermentation by anaerobic microflora composed mainly of Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides, Fusobacterium and Clostridium spp. Fermentation also leads to the formation of various gases such as hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane and short-chain fatty acids such as acetate, butyrate and propionate causing flatulence.

Tannins are primarily located in seed coat of cowpea. Thus dehulling of seed can decrease the tannin content of cowpea and improves their nutritional quality. Cowpea grains are reported to contain an array of polyphenols, which exert beneficial health effects. Polyphenols are concentrated in the seed coat; thus, processing technologies that remove the seed coat will almost entirely eliminate the polyphenols, besides eliminating valuable dietary fibre. However, thermal processes such as moist heat cooking used to prepare cowpea preparations reported to have limited effect on the profile of these compounds; thus their benefits are likely retained in such products (Awika and Duodu 2017).

Cowpea is originated and domesticated in Africa (Goncalves et al. 2016; Lazaridi et al. 2017; Richard 1847). Nowadays, it is widely grown in many other parts of the world as well such as Latin America, Europe, Asia and the United States (FAOSTAT 2019). However, Africa remains the leading producer of cowpea even today.

Phänotypes vgl. Figure 1 cowpea seeds of different varieties

Narrativer Review / Buchkapitel in wissenschaftlicher Publikation

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-41376-7_6

Study: weak evidence

Increased legume consumption as part of a low-GI diet lowered HbA_1c values, BP, heart rate, and estimated absolute CHD risk. These data provide support for the use of legumes as a specific food option to lower the dietary GI in type 2 DM and for the recommendations to increase low-GI food consumption by many national diabetes associations.

In conclusion, legume consumption of approximately 190 g per day (1 cup) seems to contribute usefully to a low-GI diet and reduce CHD risk through a reduction in BP. This effect of legumes seems analogous to that seen with acarbose, which also transforms the dietary carbohydrate into a more slowly digested low-GI form and has been associated with a reduced rate of hypertension and CHD events in prediabetic individuals.

The respective CHD risk reduction on the low-GI legume diet was −0.8% (95% CI, −1.4% to −0.3%; P = .003), largely owing to a greater relative reduction in systolic blood pressure on the low-GI legume diet compared with the high wheat fiber diet (−4.5 mm Hg; 95% CI, −7.0 to −2.1 mm Hg; P < .001).

Randomisierte kontrollierte Studie in wisschenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.1001/2013.jamainternmed.70

Study: strong evidence

Observational studies have shown that dietary fiber intake is associated with decreased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Dietary fiber can be used as a dietary change to complement statin monotherapy in lowering total and LDL-Cholesterol and to reduce the prescribed dose of statin, decrease the side effects, and improve drug tolerability.

Dietary fiber adds bulk to the diet, adsorbs and sequesters cholesterol, and thus decreases hepatic absorption and increases excretion through bile and fecal lipids and bile acids.

Water-insoluble fibers have rapid gastric emptying, and as such may decrease the intestinal transit time and increase fecal bulk, thus promoting digestive regularity. In addition to dietary fiber, isolated and extracted fibers are known as functional fiber and have been shown to induce beneficial health effects when added to food during processing.

Narrativer Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.3390/nu11051155

Study: weak evidence

 Since then, many case-control studies reported an inverse association between dietary fiber intake and the risk of colorectal cancer (2-6). Furthermore, many animal models show different inhibitory effects of various types of fiber on colon tumor development (7-9). 

In this cohort of Japanese population, dietary fiber intake was inversely associated with colorectal cancer risk. The association was stronger for the risk of colon cancer, and no clear relationship was observed for rectal cancer risk. In addition, no material differences appeared in the strength of associations with the risk between soluble and insoluble dietary fiber.

Many possible mechanisms have been proposed to explain putative risk-reducing effect of increased dietary fiber intake (7-9). When entering the large bowel, fiber increases stool bulk and dilutes fecal carcinogens. It also shortens fecal transit time and, thus, reduces the contact of the colon epithelium to carcinogens in stool. Indeed, severe constipation (bowel movement every 6 days or less) was linked with the risk of female colorectal cancer in the JACC Study (45). 

Prospektive Kohortenstudie in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-06-0664

Study: moderate evidence

Although α-galactosides are considered as the main flatus-causing factors, they are also involved in several important functions during plant and seed development and beneficially stimulate the growth and activity of living bifidobacteria and lactobacilli in the human colon.

The best-known α-galactosides are raffinose, stachyose, verbascose, and ajugose.

Narratives Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.1080/10408390701326243

Study: weak evidence

"There is abundant evidence that a reduction in dietary sodium and increase in potassium intake decreases BP, incidence of hypertension, and morbidity and mortality from CVD. However, there is no credible evidence that existing policies have been effective in achieving population goals for dietary sodium and potassium intake in the USA."

Narratives Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.1097/MOL.0000000000000033

Study: weak evidence

Folates are also known as vitamin B9 and folacin, and are essential cofactors for the one-carbon transfer reactions needed for de novo biosynthesis of purines, pyrimidines, formyl-methionyl-tRNA and thymidylate and in the metabolism of several amino acids, including methionine, serine and glycine. Its deficiency is associated with several diseases, such as anemia, with abnormally large red blood cells, and depression, risk of stroke and prostate cancer.

Folates are also recognized as extremely important for women during pregnancy to reduce the risk of neural tube defects (NTD) in babies, which are among the commonest human birth defects, affecting around 1 in every 1000 pregnancies worldwide.

Experimentelle Labor-/Analysestudie (Lebensmittelzusammensetzung, pflanzenbiologisch)

DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2021.104357

Vitamin B1 is an essential dietary component, and deficiencies in this micronutrient underlie several diseases, notably nervous system disorders. The predominant source of dietary vitamin B1 is plant-based foods.

Narrativer Review (pflanzenbiologische Grundlagenforschung) in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.1074/jbc.REV120.010918

Study: weak evidence

Besides composition, the content of flavonols in cowpea varies significantly across various phenotypes (Ojwang et al., 2012). Based on seed coat color, the red seeded cowpea generally contain the highest amount of these compounds, averaging 870–1060 lg/ g, dry basis (Table 2), whereas white and green seeded varieties tend to have the lowest, averaging 270–350 lg/g (Ojwang et al., 2012).

For example, Ojwang et al. (2012) reported 184 lg/g (40% of total flavonols) and 121 lg/g (33% of total flavonols) glucosyl- and galactosyl-rhamnosides in a light brown (cream) and black cowpea varieties, respectively. These compounds were absent in all other cowpea varieties they tested. Other quercetin derivatives that are variety specific include the acylated forms (Table 2).

It is obvious that there is significant variation in composition and content of flavonols in cowpea based on seed coat color and genetic variety.

1. Flavan-3-ol profile of cowpea Unlike flavonols that are found in all cowpea varieties, the flavan-3-ols are only present in specific phenotypes of cowpea (Ojwang et al., 2013; Price et al., 1980). Ojwang et al. (2013) reported no detectable flavan-3-ols in white or green cowpea varieties. Our additional investigations with a diverse set of cowpea confirm the absence of these compounds in white cowpea phenotypes (not published). Other published data using the non-specific vanillin-HCl test (reported as catechin equivalents, CE) generally confirm the absence of tannins in white seeded cowpea. For example, Ene-Obong (1995) found no detectable tannins in a white cowpea variety, while Plahar, Annan, and Nti (1997) reported CE values of 0.34 mg/g for blackeyed cowpea (white seed with a black eye), compared to 6.9 mg/g for maroon red and 4.2 mg/g for a light brown variety.

In all, the evidence suggests cowpea has a unique profile of tannins that may be favorable for health promotion with reduced ‘anti-nutritional’ properties. For instance, the predominance of monomers and low MW oligomers would make the cowpea flavan-3-ols more bioavailable (Holt et al., 2002). Furthermore, glycosylation is reported to stabilize these compounds in the GI tract and further improve their bioavailability (Kitao, Ariga, Matsudo, & Sekine, 1993; Raab et al., 2010). On the other hand, because higher MW tannins are far more efficient at binding nutrients (Cheynier et al., 1997; Yoneda & Nakatsubo, 1998), the overall adverse effect of cowpea tannins on nutrient digestion and absorption may thus be modest. Most published literature that mention antinutritional properties of cowpea tannins provide little direct data, and are mainly based on presumption that positive vanillin-HCl assay automatically suggests presence of ‘harmful’ tannins, or are based on in vitro assays of questionable predictive value.

Various reports provide some evidence of anti-cancer properties of cowpea which have been demonstrated using in vitro and in vivo assays. These anti-cancer properties have been shown using such parameters as inhibition of oxidative DNA damage, antiproliferative effects against cancer cells and induction of Phase II detoxifying enzymes.

One of the most important events thought to trigger development of coronary heart disease is oxidation of low density lipoprotein (LDL) (Regnström, Ström, Moldeus, & Nilsson, 1993). The prevailing hypothesis is that macrophages (Jacob & Burri, 1996) and smooth muscle cells take up oxidised LDL and this leads to formation of fatty streaks (Baba et al., 2007) within blood vessels and development of atherosclerosis. The prevention of LDL oxidation is therefore used to demonstrate protection against cardiovascular disease and hypertension.

Narratives Review in wisschenschafltichem Journal

DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2016.12.002

Study: weak evidence

These grains are mainly used in mature form, but in regions such as Northeast Brazil immature grains are also widely consumed. Such people believe that immature grains (green grains) are more digestible than mature grain (dry grains), being better for consumption.

The use of food legumes for human nutrition has required the employment of a wide range of processing methods and conditions to inactivate or totally eliminate inhibitors. These methods include soaking, dehulling, germination, fermentation and chiefly common cooking.

The present study demonstrated that mature seeds have larger amounts of proteins and higher concentration of trypsin inhibitors when compared to immature seeds, and that globulins from mature seeds have with lower molecular weights, however globulins from both seeds are destroyed by trypsin after cooking treatment.

In Vitro Laborstudie

DOI: 10.1016/S0956-7135(03)00021-5

Study: weak evidence

This study has shown that IT81D-699 and TVx 3236 have desirable attributes such as high crude protein contents, low levels of phytic acid and superior nutritional quality compared with IT82E-18 and IT84S-2246-4. These cowpea lines could possibly be combined into a single cowpea line and further improved by breeders to have other desirable cooking quality, such as reduced cooking times and higher levels of water absorption during soaking.

Experimentelle Laborstudie zur Nährstoffzusammensetzung

DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2004.06.007

Study: weak evidence

Accepted Infraspecifics

Includes 13 Accepted Infraspecifics

In Nigeria some varieties of cowpea are cultivated for their strong fibre which is used to make fishing gear as well as to produce good quality paper. In the United States cowpea is grown for green manure. The dry seeds also make a good alternative to coffee.

Various parts of the cowpea are used medicinally. The leaves and seeds are applied to skin infections as a poultice, the leaves are chewed to relieve toothache and powdered carbonized seeds are applied to insect stings. The roots are used as treatment for epilepsy, chest pain, constipation and as an antidote to snakebites.

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Water footprint: high, it takes 6,906 liters of water to produce 1 kilogram of dried black-eyed peas or cowpeas / 828 gallons of water to produce 1 pound of black-eyed peas or cowpeas

Carbon footprint: low, 0.56 kg CO2e to produce 1 kilogram or 2.2 pounds of dry black eyed peas, a car driving equivalent of 1.25 miles or 2 kilometers.

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Cow peas, dry 6906

DOI: 10.5194/hess-15-1577-2011

DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17680

DOI: 10.3390/land11040581

DOI: 10.1007/s13593-023-00902-y

According to Verdcourt (1970), cowpea has five sub- species, which are cylindrical, Sesquipedalis, dekindtiana, unguiculata and manensis. Among them, cylindrical, sesquipedalis and unguiculata are cultivated species, whereas dekindtiana and menensis are wild. It is highly self-pollinated, vigorous climbing annual, cultivated for its strikingly long draping pods which are used as vegetables.

The Leguminosae genus Vigna is a pantropical genus comprising about 100 species mainly found in Africa and Asia (Maréchal et al., 1978). Nine Vigna species have been domesticated, two of which were domesticated in Africa and seven were domesticated in Asia. The African Vigna consists of cowpea [V. unguiculata (L.) Walp.] and bambara groundnut [V. subterranea (L.) Verdc.] (Smartt, 1990). The Asian Vigna comprises mungbean [V. radiata (L.) Wilczek], blackgram [V. mungo (L.) Hepper], moth bean [V. aconitifolia (Jacq.) Maréchal], azuki bean [V. angularis (L.) Ohwi & Ohashi], rice bean [V. umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & Ohashi], jungli bean [V. trilobata (L.) Verdc.] and creole bean [V. reflexo-pilosa Hayata] (Tomooka et al., 2002).

DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcs048

SP.

Therefore, the goal of this thorough paper was to provide insight and synthesis into the dietary and phenolic status of cowpeas, as well as their impact on human and animal diets. In addition, protein, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, dietary fibers, minerals, and vitamins are abundant in cowpea seeds, leaves, and green pods. Cowpea is a water deficiency tolerant crop that could be used as food for humans and feed for livestock with the bulk of their macro and micronutrients. It also contains anti-nutritional elements that could be inconvenient to human and non-ruminant animal nutrition.

Narratives Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.1016/j.jafr.2022.100383

Study: weak evidence

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This review presents a comprehensive analysis of plant-based proteins from soybeans, pulses, cereals, and pseudo-cereals by examining their structural properties, modification techniques, bioactivities, and applicability in food systems. It addresses the critical need for a proper utilization strategy of proteins from various plant sources amidst the rising environmental footprint of animal protein production. The inherent composition diversity among plant proteins, their nutritional profiles, digestibility, environmental impacts, and consumer acceptance are compared. The innovative modification techniques to enhance the functional properties of plant proteins are also discussed. The review also investigates the bioactive properties of plant proteins, including their antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antitumoral activities, and their role in developing meat analogs, dairy alternatives, baked goods, and 3D-printed foods. It underscores the consideration parameters of using plant proteins as sustainable, nutritious, and functional ingredients and advocates for research to overcome sensory and functional challenges for improved consumer acceptance and marketability.

Narrativer Review in wissenschaftlichem Fachjournal

DOI: 10.3390/foods13131974

Study: weak evidence